To provide your tissues with energy, your cells must convert glucose from the food you eat into cellular energy, known as ATP. This process requires a coordinated series of enzymatic reactions, and a defect in one or more of these enzymes can severely compromise cell function. For example, pyruvate dehydrogenase, or PDH, deficiency impairs glucose metabolism in sufferers and can lead to toxic blood acidity levels and neurological damage. However, a ketogenic diet for individuals with PDH deficiency may improve their prognosis, even in those who have concurrent diabetes.

Role of Pyruvate Dehydrogenase

Converting glucose into ATP requires glycolysis, which converts glucose into pyruvate in a series of enzymatic reactions. A transporter protein moves the pyruvate into the mitochondria, where the PDH enzyme converts it into another molecule known as acetyl coenzyme A. Provided you have sufficient oxygen available, the mitochondria converts the acetyl coenzyme A into ATP using a series of enzymatic reactions. However, insufficient oxygen or PDH deficiency will lead to a buildup of pyruvate outside the mitochondria, which is converted to lactate. Excess lactate and lactic acid production increases the acidity of your blood and may lead to metabolic acidosis.

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Deficiency

PDH deficiency is a rare inherited condition usually evident at infancy or in early childhood. The majority of cases are caused by a mutation in the E1 alpha gene, which is responsible for making a large part of the PDH enzyme. However, mutations in other genes and cofactors responsible for PDH function can also cause PDH deficiency. Since glucose is the primary source of fuel for the nervous system, infants with PDH deficiency often experience developmental delay, mental retardation and seizures. Additionally, the pyruvate buildup contributes to excess lactate production and sometimes high blood ammonia levels.

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Deficiency Treatment

Treatment of PDH deficiency often does not influence disease progression, but it may reduce the occurrence of life-threatening symptoms such as breathing difficulties and seizures. The response to treatments also depends on the severity of the condition and the origin of the deficiency. Generally, treatments aim to stimulate PDH enzyme activity, provide enzyme cofactors such as thiamine, and reduce acidosis. A 2006 article published in “Journal of Child Neurology” showed that a 4-year-old girl with PDH deficiency increased developmental progress, overall activity level, and metabolic health after consuming a ketogenic diet for 28 days. This special diet is high in fat to provide an alternate source of acetyl coenzyme A and low in carbohydrate diet to limit pyruvate production from glucose.

Ketogenic Diets and Diabetes

Diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by insufficient glucose uptake into cells, which can lead to excessive ketone body production and life-threatening ketoacidosis if left untreated. Although ketogenic diets improve symptoms of PDH deficiency, scientists previously discouraged their use in diabetic individuals because they may increase the risk of ketoacidosis. However, the 4-year-old girl mentioned previously was also diabetic, and her body’s glucose-handling ability improved after consuming the ketogenic diet. Type 2 diabetics also improved glycemic control and were able to reduce their diabetes medication dosages in a 2008 study published in “Nutrition and Metabolism.”

Dextrose, also called glucose, is a type of simple sugar. Dextrose occurs naturally in some types of food, including fruit. Dextrose is also used as a sweetener and added to a variety of processed foods. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, most people can safely include a small amount of added sugar, such as dextrose, in their diets. Consuming excessive amounts of added dextrose may negatively impact your health.

Empty Calories and Weight

Added sugars — such as dextrose — are sources of empty calories, meaning they offer little or no nutritional value. Indeed, dextrose lacks essential vitamins, minerals and dietary fiber. Furthermore, dextrose is a high-energy food which means that it contains a large amount of calories in a small serving size. Dextrose is commonly added to desserts, baked goods, pastries, ice cream and sugary beverages. Because dextrose is calorie-dense, foods that include added dextrose tend to be high in calories. For this reason, sources of added dextrose may contribute to weight gain.

Tooth Decay

Consuming dextrose as well as other types of added sugar may lead to oral health problems, such as tooth decay. The bacteria in your mouth thrive on sugar. Unless quickly brushed away, some of the dextrose you consume remains on your teeth. Bacteria begin feeding on the dextrose stuck to your teeth. This process produces acid which contributes to the buildup of plaque on your teeth and along your gum line. If left untreated, a buildup of plaque may eventually lead to cavities and abscesses.

Triglycerides

Consuming an excessive amount of added sugar, such as dextrose, may increase your triglycerides. According to MayoClinic.com, limiting your sugar intake is one of the best ways to help reduce your triglyceride levels. Triglycerides are a type of fat that is found in your blood and fatty tissue. Having too many triglycerides in your body may increase your risk of heart attack and stroke because triglycerides tend to harden and narrow the walls of your arteries.

Daily Recommended Intake

According to the American Heart Association, you should limit your intake of added sugars to about 100 to 150 calories a day. Keep in mind that the average 12-ounce can of non-diet soda contains about 133 calories from added sugar. Remember that dextrose is just one of many types of sugar commonly added to foods. In addition to dextrose, examples of added sugars include high fructose corn syrup, nectar, molasses, malt syrup and honey.

If you are pregnant, excess amniotic fluid can increase your chances of developing gestational diabetes, characterized by high blood glucose levels. Having too much amniotic fluid may also be a signal that you have gestational diabetes. This disorder develops when pregnancy hormones block your insulin from functioning properly, causing an elevation in your blood sugar levels.

Symptoms

You may develop gestational diabetes without experiencing any symptoms. If you do experience symptoms, they will generally be mild, according to Medline Plus, a service of the National Institutes of Health. Symptoms may include an increased thirst and increased need to urinate, as well as fatigue, nausea and vomiting. You may experience recurring infections, including vaginal, bladder or skin infections. Blurred vision is also a possible symptom of gestational diabetes, as is weight loss combined with an increased appetite.

Testing

If you develop gestational diabetes, it usually occurs past the halfway point of your pregnancy. You may be tested for gestational diabetes between week 24 and week 28 of your pregnancy. While an increased amount of amniotic fluid can point to gestational diabetes, the test for gestational diabetes doesn’t involve the amniotic fluid. Rather, you will likely be tested for gestational diabetes with an oral glucose test.

Amniotic Fluid

Amniotic fluid is what surrounds your unborn baby in the amniotic sac. It is a liquid that your unborn baby floats in while inside your womb. The amniotic fluid gets swallowed by your unborn baby and then released through its urine. If your fetus does not swallow and then absorb normal amounts of amniotic fluid, there may be too much amniotic fluid in the amniotic sac. This condition, known as polyhydraminos, can be caused by too much glucose in your bloodstream.

Problems

If you have too much amniotic fluid and too much glucose in your bloodstream because of gestational diabetes, problems may occur. Gestational diabetes can increase the birth weight of your baby. Delivering a large baby may result in birth trauma. You might need a cesarean section. Babies of mothers with gestational diabetes also have a greater risk of having low blood sugar for the first few days after being born. Gestational diabetes may also elevate your blood pressure to unhealthy levels. Typically, however, your pregnancy-induced diabetes will go away after you’ve given birth. It can, however, come back five to 10 years later. If you develop gestational diabetes, you should be routinely screened for diabetes afterward.

The pale bland appearance of tofu makes many people turn up their noses, but tofu can make a big impact on your diet. This protein-packed food can take on any seasoning, and the variety of textures available makes tofu able to stand up to any method of cooking. If you and your doctor determine you need to focus on lean proteins in your diet, following a diet rich in tofu may prove beneficial. Knowing some of the ways you can use tofu will help you plan.

Meal

You can make tofu a main component of your meal. Firm tofu holds up to grilling, and you can marinate tofu slices in soy, teriyaki or your own blend. Once you’re ready to grill, place the tofu “steaks” on the barbeque and wait for them to char slightly. Tofu does not need to cook to a certain doneness, so look for the charred color you prefer. Another option is to cube tofu and add it to stir fries, soups or other meals where you would otherwise add chunks or slices of meat. If you use soft tofu, crumble the tofu in a nonstick pan. You can season the tofu with salt, pepper and other spices, adding in spinach, mushrooms or other vegetables to create a tofu scramble similar to scrambled eggs.

Sauce

Soft tofu also makes a good base for sauces. You can blend tofu with milk, garlic, onion and your favorite seasonings to create a close rendition of an alfredo sauce. Simply pour the sauce over your favorite cooked pasta and you have a high-protein meal that you can pair with a salad. In an easy adaption, blend basil, pine nuts and sun-dried tomatoes to your tofu sauce for a creative pesto sauce high in protein and lower in fat than traditional pesto.

Dessert

Choose silken or soft tofu and blend with fresh strawberries or other fruit, along with milk. Then chill the mixture for a light, fresh mousse. You may also consider using tofu as the base for cheesecakes and puddings.

Considerations

The versatility of tofu makes this an easy food to use for any dietary plan, but particularly if you want to eliminate animal-based foods from your diet. Since tofu stems from soybeans, if you have an allergy to soy products, your doctor will not recommend a tofu-based diet plan. Instead, you and your doctor should determine other healthful options.

Food choice is a significant part of managing diabetes, along with the amount you eat and the frequency of your meals. Although once a common belief, carbohydrate-containing foods are not the bane of diabetic nutrition, notes registered dietitian Andrea Dunn of the Cleveland Clinic. You need carbohydrates in your diet because they serve as your main source of energy. However, choosing the healthiest carbohydrates and portions is key to regulating your glucose levels.

Carbohydrate Digestion

Carbohydrates are single sugar molecules united with carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The compound can remain as a single sugar molecule in the form of simple sugars, or combine into several sugar chains to form complex structures or starches. No matter the carbohydrate-containing food, your body breaks it back down into a single sugar molecule, or glucose, which releases into your bloodstream for transport via insulin to your cells. Fast-acting simple sugars can cause a rapid spike in your glucose, whereas complex carbohydrates slowly increase blood glucose levels. Fiber, the indigestible portion of a carbohydrate food, does not break down, but is important because it slows the release of glucose into your bloodstream.

Simple Sugar Carbohydrates: Fruit and Dairy

Carbohydrates made up of simple sugars include the naturally occurring form in dairy and fresh fruit or the added form found in processed foods. Natural simple sugars, especially fresh fruits that contain fiber, are good choices in a diet for diabetes. Grapes, a medium apple or pear with skin and berries with seeds are fibrous simple sugar carbohydrates you can eat in small portions as a snack or dessert. Dairy products are important as a source of vitamins and minerals, but choose low-fat versions to prevent complications related to high saturated fat intake.

Sweet Treat Carbohydrates

If you are diabetic, you do not have to avoid the occasional sweet treat or dessert, but if you choose to indulge, do so moderately using the exchange method or portion reduction. For instance, 2 oz. of frosted cake can replace two healthy carbohydrates like one banana and one slice of bread. If you prefer to use portion reduction, then choose a half-serving size for your treat instead of a whole serving. To maintain a healthy diet, limit sweets with processed sugars such as high-fructose corn syrup, sugar cane, sucrose, dextrose or maltose. Avoid processed sweets if your diabetes is not adequately managed.

Complex Carbohydrates: Starches, Grains, Fiber

Complex carbohydrates are an important part of your diet because they supply vitamins, nutrients and a significant amount of fiber. Beans, potatoes, whole grains like brown rice, wheat bread or pasta and oats are healthy, starchy carbohydrates you can include in your daily meals. Whole-grain starches digest more slowly than refined, white grains, which makes a difference in how fast you metabolize glucose. Add a complex carbohydrate serving to each meal rather than gorging on a lot all at once, which can cause a glucose spike. Nuts, leafy green vegetables, broccoli, carrots and corn are also fibrous complex carbohydrates that you can include in your diet.

Whether you are in a rush or trying to lose weight, skipping a meal can be an occasionally tempting option. However, if you have diabetes, missing a meal affects your ability to maintain your blood sugar control. You also might be inclined to eat more later to make up for the skipped meal, which also affects your insulin response. Make healthy meal choices instead of skipping meals.

Blood Sugar Fluctuations

When you have diabetes, maintaining regular blood sugar levels can prevent adverse side effects, including tissue and nerve damage. Skipping a meal causes your blood glucose level to dip too low, which makes you feel fatigued and lethargic. Your low blood sugar level triggers hunger, causing you to eat more food than you would in a typical meal to relieve your hunger later. After you finally eat, your blood sugar level goes up, which can contribute to adverse side effects like tissue damage.

Hypoglycemic Attacks

Frequently skipping meals can cause you to experience a hypoglycemic attack, where your blood sugar dips too low. Just as high blood sugar levels are harmful, low blood sugar levels due to hypoglycemia cause anxiety, nervousness, dizzy spells and drowsiness. In severe instances, a hypoglycemic attack leads to loss of consciousness. If you experience these or other symptoms associated with hypoglycemia, eat a fast-acting carbohydrate source, such as five to six pieces of hard candy or 1 tbsp. of honey. Follow up with a protein and carbohydrate snack or meal, such as a peanut butter sandwich, which can help to stabilize your blood sugar.

Research

A research study published in the December 2007 edition of “Metabolism” studied the effects of skipping meals, yet eating the same amount of calories on a daily basis. Study participants ate three meals a day for a period of two months. They then switched to eating two meals per day, yet ate the same amount of calories. They consumed the final meal of the day between 4 and 8 p.m. When the study concluded, researchers found those who skipped meals experienced higher fasting glucose levels as well as a delayed insulin response, compared to those who ate three meals per day. Participants who ate three meals per day did not experience the same ill effects associated with fluctuating fasting glucose levels. In the long term, the symptoms associated with skipping meals can contribute to diabetes — or cause blood sugar control problems if you already have diabetes.

Recommendations

If you have diabetes, work with your physician or dietitian to ensure you eat in a manner that helps you maintain good control over your blood sugar. The University of Maryland Medical Center suggests eating at least three meals per day, possibly supplementing these meals with daily snacks to maintain your insulin response and blood sugar levels. Avoid skipping meals whenever possible to prevent metabolic side effects that could affect your current insulin sensitivity. If you tend to be short on time for meals, carry packaged snacks or prepare your own, such as trail mix.

Diabetes is a medical condition that involves decreased insulin sensitivity or an inability of your body to produce the hormone insulin. This leads to elevated blood sugar levels, which can have serious complications, including organ damage and blindness. For diabetics, increasing insulin sensitivity or making your cells use insulin more efficiently can result in lower blood glucose levels.

Blueberries

Blueberries contain potent antioxidants that may boost insulin sensitivity, according to a study at Pennington Biomedical Research Center. Scientists assigned obese insulin-resistant men and women a smoothie with or without blueberry antioxidants twice daily for six weeks. At the end of the treatment, a report of which was published in the October 2010 issue of the “Journal of Nutrition,” researchers found that those in the blueberry group experienced increases in insulin sensitivity compared with those who had the non-blueberry smoothie.

Almonds

Researchers at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey studied the impact of almond consumption on cardiovascular risk factors in adults with prediabetes. Patients followed a diet with or without 2 oz. of almonds daily for 16 weeks. Scientists found that those in the almond group experienced increases in insulin sensitivity compared with those in the non-almond group. The findings were published in the June 2010 issue of the "Journal of the American College of Nutrition.”

Grapefruit

Grapefruit might reduce insulin resistance by increasing insulin sensitivity, according to a study at Scripps Clinic. They discovered that obese patients consuming fresh grapefruit or 8 oz. of grapefruit juice with their meals for 12 weeks experienced increased insulin sensitivity and weight loss compared with those who had a placebo, according to research reported in the 2006 issue of the “Journal of Medicinal Food.”

Whole Grains

Whole grains, such as brown rice, quinoa, whole-grain cereal and oatmeal, may boost insulin sensitivity. Researchers at Harvard Medical School and the University of Minnesota discovered that overweight and obese subjects following a whole-grain rich diet for six weeks increased their insulin sensitivity compared with those who consumed refined grains, according to research reported in the May 2002 issue of the “American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.”

Bifidus, the shortened name of a bacterial genus, Bifidobacteria, is a type or normal bacteria that lives in the large intestine. It carries out a variety of effects, including production of acids and breaking down sugars, that cannot be done by the intestine. Tablets containing of several species of Bifidobacteria, including B. breve, B. bifidum, B. lactis and B. longum are marketed as "probiotics." The most well known and only scientifically verified effect of probiotics is to reduce diarrhea in patients taking antibiotics. The bacteria are thought to have a variety of other beneficial effects as well but still have to be verified by more studies.

Function of Intestinal Bacteria

The large intestine is lined by bacteria. Most of these bacteria carry out a number of functions that intestinal cells are unable to do. In normal amounts, these bacteria do not cause any disease. These bacteria may break down sugars and produce acids and reactions that human cells cannot do. They form a symbiotic relationship with the intestinal cells. Sometimes, these "friendly" bacteria are lost. This most frequently happens in people taking antibiotics as these drugs can destroy the normal bacteria.

Restore Intestinal Balance

The most commonly touted benefit of probiotics is in the treatment of antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Antibiotic-associated diarrhea is most commonly seen with drugs such as amoxicillin and ampicillin. This diarrhea is due to the antibiotic effect on the normal intestinal bacteria. The claim that probiotics can reduce diarrhea has been established in a number of studies. For example, a study published in 2002 in the "British Medical Journal" found that probiotics reduced the incidence of diarrhea in patients who were taking amoxicillin and allowed for faster recovery of normal intestinal bacteria.

Cholesterol-Lowering Effect

Some evidence suggests that probiotics such as bifidus may have a cholesterol-lowering effect. However, the reason by which this occurs is not yet clear. Scientists are also determining the dosage of these bacteria that is needed to achieve this effect. Whether this effect actually occurs, however, remains controversial. One study, for example, published in 2011 in the "Journal of Dairy Science" found that diabetics taking regular yoghurt, which contains several probiotic bacteria, were found have slight decreases in cholesterol.

Colon Cancer

Some recent studies have suggested that probiotics may prevent colon cancer; however, this has not been shown in humans. A study published in 2010 in the "Proceedings of the Nutrition Society" found that mice being fed fermented milk had a decreased growth of colon cancers. More information is needed before this result can be established in humans.

Other Possible Benefits

Bifidobacteria have been postulated to have a number of other beneficial effects. According to a 2010 article in the "Hong Kong Medical Journal," some other postulated effects of probiotics include preventing dental caries, reducing stomach or urinary infections and prevent hepatic encephalopathy. As the article notes, further studies are needed to confirm the validity of these claims.

Diabetes, a chronic condition characterized by insulin resistance or a lack of insulin production, affects more than 25 million people in the United States, according to the National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse. Although exercise and a healthy diet help stabilize blood glucose levels, often the body requires medicinal treatment. Newer diabetes treatments involving phenylalanine, an essential amino acid acquired via the diet or laboratory-created dietary supplements, contribute to healthier blood glucose levels.

About Diabetes

The three main types of diabetes — type 1, type 2 and gestational — require medical intervention. Type 1 diabetics require insulin administration via an insulin pump or injections because the pancreas no longer produces the hormone. Type 2 diabetics are insulin resistant or do not respond to insulin, which causes elevated blood glucose levels. Gestational diabetes only occurs in pregnant women. The baby’s birth usually eradicates the condition because the body ceases the production of pregnancy hormones, which causes insulin insensitivity. Often, exercise and strict adherence to a healthy diet will adequately control blood glucose levels; however, oral medications may be administered to trigger the release of additional insulin molecules. If left untreated, diabetes can lead to serious health repercussions, including heart disease, high blood pressure, and kidney disease or failure.

About Phenylalanine

The amino acid phenylalanine is a building block in protein formation. Researchers have identified three forms of phenylalanine: L-phenylalanine, D-phenylalanine and DL-phenylalanine. L-phenylalanine naturally occurs while researchers synthetically produce D-phenylalanine in a laboratory. DL-phenylalanine contains a 50-50 combination of L- and D-phenylalanine. Protein-rich foods, such as fish, eggs and poultry, naturally contain phenylalanine. The artificial sweetener aspartame, known commercially as NutraSweet and Equal, contains phenylalanine and aspartic acid. Although researchers and medical professionals continue to debate the safety of aspartame, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the National Cancer Institute deemed it safe for human consumption.

Nateglinide

Endocrinologists prescribe nateglinide, a D-phenylalanine derivative and an oral diabetic medication, to control type 2 diabetes. Nateglinide, or the commercial brand Starlix, increases the pancreas’ production of insulin in an attempt to lower blood glucose levels. Depending on the severity of the disease, endocrinologists may prescribe nateglinide as part of a multimedicinal type 2 diabetes treatment plan or as the sole oral medication. As with any diabetic treatment plan, a diabetic-friendly diet, exercise and weight management should be combined with medication. Although nateglinide helps type 2 diabetics control their blood glucose levels, type 1 diabetics and those in a ketotic state, or have accumulated ketones in the bloodstream, should not take nateglinide.

Interactions and Side Effects

Common side effects of nateglinide include cough, runny nose or sore throat. Less common side effects include abdominal, back, muscle and joint pain; chills; and dizziness. Immediately seek medical attention if you experience seizures. When used in conjunction with other anti-diabetic medications, nateglinide may contribute to hypoglycemia, or low blood sugar. Antidepressant, antipsychotic and neuroleptic medications can cause adverse reactions when taken with nateglinide or supplements containing phenylalanine. Thoroughly discuss your medical history and any medications, prescribed and over the counter, you are currently taking with your doctor before beginning a phenylalanine or nateglinide regimen.

Whether you are trying to lose weight or just want to lead a healthy lifestyle, there are a few types of foods that should be avoided as much as possible. These foods are different from one another, but they all have the same thing in common: They are bad for your health. By avoiding processed meat, refined grains, high-fat dairy products, sugary beverages and fast foods, you can improve your health and reduce the risk of many cardiovascular diseases.

Processed Meat

Processed meats such as bacon, hot dogs and lunch meat mix high levels of sodium with a high saturated fat content for a very unhealthy combination. Sodium can increase the risk of heart disease, and saturated fat can lead to clogged arteries, high cholesterol and cardiovascular problems.

Refined Grains

White bread, potatoes, white rice and white pasta are all examples of refined grains, and they are all unhealthy when consumed in large amounts. Refined grains are quickly turned into sugar when they enter the body. After the grains are turned to sugar, they are absorbed into the blood stream, spiking your blood sugar. The body quickly creates insulin to counteract the excess sugar, and the insulin stores the excess sugar and lowers your blood sugar to a level lower than when you started eating. You quickly become hungry again, and the insulin prevents your body from burning fat leading to weight gain, diabetes and heart disease.

High-fat Dairy Products

Dairy products are often promoted as a good source of calcium, and because of that they are said to help build strong teeth and bones. While whole-fat milk and other dairy products are fortified with calcium, they also contain plenty of unhealthy fat. Three glasses of whole milk — 30 percent of the recommended daily amount of calcium — contain as much fat as 13 slices of bacon, according to the Harvard School of Public Health. Most dairy products are high in saturated fat, so if you want to use dairy to get the calcium you need, use the low-fat varieties.

Sugary Beverages

Sugary beverages such as coffees, sodas and juices can be even more dangerous to your health than sugary and fatty foods because most of the time you don’t realize how many calories you are taking in. Sugary drinks don’t fill you up as sugary foods do, and that can lead to drinking more calories and sugar than you would consume with food.

Fast Foods

While fast foods are convenient when you are out and about, most of them are very unhealthy. Fast food is generally high in fat, sugar and sodium, and a single meal can cut into your daily allowances dramatically. Even many of the healthy alternatives offered at fast-food restaurants are often unhealthy. The salads can have nearly as many calories as burgers when full-fat dressing has been added.